Somer L. Franklin, John R. Slate, and Sheila A. Joyner
Sam Houston State University
Abstract
In this study, we examined the extent to which differences were present by ethnic membership in the numbers and percentages of master’s degrees attained at Texas public, 4-year institutions of higher education by White, Hispanic, and Black students for the 2000 through the 2011 academic years. Archival data from the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board Accountability System from all public universities were downloaded and analyzed. A total of 282,821 master’s degrees were awarded by Texas public institutions of higher education between the 2000 and 2011 academic years. White students were awarded the majority of master’s degrees during each of the academic years. Hispanic students received more master’s degrees than did Black students in each of the 12 academic years. Statistically significant differences were present in in the numbers and percentages of master’s degrees for White, Hispanic, and Black students between the 2000 and 2011 academic years. The relationship of our results for the Closing the Gaps plan is discussed.
Introduction
Higher education has experienced a revolution of change over the past 50 years, with dramatic shifts in both scope and diversity (Altbach, Reisberg, & Rumbley, 2009). One of the most notable changes in higher education has been an increase in the ethnic diversity of the student population (U.S. Census Bureau, 2006, 2011c; U.S. Department of Commerce, 1990, 1993; Wendler et al., 2010). The changing demographics of educational populations are directly driven by changes in population demographics worldwide. From 1960 to 2012, the world population grew exponentially from approximately 3 billion persons to more than 7 billion individuals (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011b). This growth is projected to continue throughout the 21st century, although at a slightly slower pace. By 2044, the world population is expected to reach 9 billion individuals (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011b). A similar growth trend has been present within the United States. During the same time span, 1960 to 2012, the population of the United States grew from approximately 180.6 million to 314 million individuals, and by 2040, the population of the United States is projected to exceed 400 million individuals (U.S. Census Bureau, 2008; 2012b).
With a continuously increasing world population comes a continuously increasing number of adolescent-aged individuals. As such, more and more young adults are progressing through primary and secondary levels of education worldwide (Altbach et al., 2009). This trend has led to a sustained increase in student enrollment in higher education throughout the last decade (Altbach et al., 2009). In the United States, higher education enrollments in both public and private institutions have increased from approximately 10.5 million students in 1980 to more than 18 million students in 2010 (National Center for Education Statistics, 2012). At the undergraduate level, enrollments are expected to increase to 20.6 million students by the year 2021. At the graduate level, post-baccalaureate enrollments are projected to reach 3.5 million students by 2021 (National Center for Education Statistics, 2012). However, increasing enrollments do not guarantee equitable access for underrepresented groups. Despite more than three decades of diversification efforts across institutions of higher education in the United States, minority enrollments continue to lag behind the enrollments of their White counterparts (American Council on Education, 2012). Further, racial and ethnic minorities continue to experience disparities in both income and educational achievement levels (Altbach, Gumport, & Berdahl, 2011; Weddle-West & Fleming, 2010). Between 1980 and 2011, the disparity between White and Hispanic students earning a bachelor’s degree or higher increased from 17 percentage points to 26 percentage points. The same widening gap was present between White and Black students, with the attainment gap widening from 13 percentage points to 19 percentage points over the 31-year period (National Center for Education Statistics, 2012).
Racial inequities in higher education have far reaching implications. Higher education is viewed not only as a crucial asset for individual growth and success, but also as a driving force for economic development (Altbach et al., 2009). Undergraduate education equips society with a knowledgeable and skilled workforce, contributing to a stable economy (Wendler et al., 2010). Graduate education builds upon this knowledge and skills, cultivating critical thinking abilities and creative innovation processes (Wendler et al., 2010). As a result, graduate education has been termed a “strategic national asset” to the United States, substantially impacting the nation’s ability to remain competitive in the global economy (Wendler et al., 2010, preface). It is imperative, therefore, that investment be made in educating a larger proportion of the population at the graduate level in an effort for the United States to remain a global, intellectual leader (Wendler et al., 2010).
At the individual level, graduate education is inextricably linked to higher earnings. According to the U.S. Census Bureau’s (2011a) Current Population Survey, individuals 18 years and older and possessing only a high school diploma earned a mean annual income of $30,627. In contrast, individuals with a bachelor’s degree earned a mean annual income of $56,665. The most notable salary increases, however, were associated with master’s, doctoral, and professional degrees resulting in mean annual incomes of $73,738, $103,054, and $127,803, respectively (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011a). In addition to higher earnings, graduate degree recipients demonstrate lower unemployment levels, increased job satisfaction, and elevated career opportunities (Ryan & Siebens, 2012; Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board, 2012c; Wendler et al., 2012).
Statement of the Problem
According to the Commission on Pathways through Graduate School and into Careers, “the link between graduate education and American prosperity has never been stronger than it is today” (Wendler et al., 2012, p. 1). Until recently, the United States was positioned as a global leader in the graduate education arena. However, with countries such as the European Union, China, and India making vast investments in and commitments to graduate education, the United States risks losing its long-held competitive advantage (Wendler et al., 2010). To remain a contender in this global knowledge economy, “immediate action must be taken to increase the number of individuals who not only enroll in higher education but also earn degrees” (Engle & Tinto, 2008, p. 2).
One of the most important considerations in graduate education is the change in demographic trends (Wendler et al., 2010). Between April 2010 and July 2011, the U.S. Census Bureau (2012a) estimated the United States’ population had increased by 0.9% to more than 300 million individuals. Of this population, 13.1% was comprised of Black individuals, 16.7% of Hispanic or Latino individuals, and 63.4% of White, non-Hispanic individuals (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012a). Texas, representing over 8% of the United States’ population and having grown by 2.1% between April 2010 and July 2011, has an estimated population of 25,674,681 persons (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012a). Of this population, 12.2% was comprised of Black individuals, 38.1% of Hispanic or Latino individuals, and 44.8% of White, non-Hispanic individuals (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012a). The Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board (2012b) asserted, “Texas stands at a crossroads” (p. 5). With an increasingly diversified population, the State of Texas must address the current gaps in collegiate enrollment and graduation between racial and ethnic groups. To do otherwise would result in a less educated workforce, a declining state economy, and a depressed quality of life for Texas citizens (Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board, 2012c).
In 2000, the Texas state legislature instituted the Closing the Gaps initiative. A major emphasis of this initiative was to increase the participation and completion rates of Texas students in college (Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board, 2010). Through the Closing the Gaps initiative, the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board generated specific benchmarks in determining whether the four goals of this initiative were met: “to close the gaps in student participation, student success, excellence, and research” (2010, p. 1). The intent of accomplishing these goals is to increase student college readiness and the college retention rate.
Theoretical Framework
This study was grounded through the use of two inter-related theories: Coleman’s social capital theory and Bourdieu’s classical theory espousing a cultural heritage of educational accomplishments (Bourdieu, 2003; Coleman, 1988; Lareau & Horvat, 1999). Capital, as defined by Coleman (1988), can be conceived as physical, human, or social. As an example, Coleman (1988) used manufacturing to demonstrate his meaning of physical capital. Physical capital, occurs when materials are converted into tools or machinery that facilitate production and manufacturing. Extending that frame of thought, Coleman (1988) described human capital as the changes in a person that contribute to skills and abilities that, in turn, facilitate a person acting in new or different ways. Applying this frame of thought to social capital, Coleman (1988) purported that changes in the relationships between individuals result in changes in the collective actions of those individuals. Coleman (1988) asserted that the value of social capital theory stemmed from its focus on identifying varying functions of social structure and the relation of such functions on an individual’s ability to achieve desired outcomes. The individually-based functions and outcomes further contribute to the accomplishment of macro-system goals (Coleman, 1988).
Applying Coleman’s theory to the field of education, Bourdieu (2003) postulated with his cultural reproduction theory, that individuals hold a certain amount of social and cultural capital, endowed to them from previous generations. This capital is passed down from generation to generation, further contributing to the inequalities of class, race, and other social strata (Lareau & Horvat, 1999). In addition, the educational system itself is argued to serve as a social transmitter of such capital. Bourdieu (2003) wrote:
. . . different pedagogic actions which are carried out within the framework of the social structure, that is to say, those which are carried out by families from the different social classes as well as that which is practiced by the school, work together in a harmonious way to transmit a cultural heritage which is considered as being the undivided property of the whole society. (p. 64)
Relating this theory specifically to higher education, the underrepresentation of Black and Hispanic students in master’s degrees within Texas public higher education institutions separates them from the dominant culture. As such, a disadvantageous position exists for these groups. With the Closing the Gaps initiative, the intent is to increase the representation of Black and Hispanic students, such that higher education system in Texas serves as a social transmitter of such capital.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which differences were present by ethnic membership in graduate degrees attained at Texas public, 4-year institutions of higher education. Specifically, the numbers of master’s degrees awarded to White, Hispanic, and Black students in the State of Texas for the 2000 through the 2011 academic years were examined through an analysis of archival data from the Texas Higher Education Accountability System. Examining differences in graduate degrees awarded by ethnicity within the State of Texas contributed to an analysis of equity in higher education as well as determining the extent to which progress had been made within the state toward its Closing the Gaps initiatives. Additionally, the limited body of literature related to graduate degree attainment by ethnic status was expanded by this investigation.
Significance of the Study
This research study yielded findings that enhance the literature regarding equity, or the lack thereof, in graduate education. A review of the literature revealed only a limited number of studies at the national level and no studies within the State of Texas addressing the equity of graduate education. However, to progress with appropriate efforts and initiatives in educating the State’s population, an understanding of the educational landscape and demographic trends within higher education is necessary. Specifically, an examination of degrees awarded by ethnic groupings highlighted gaps within the State’s educational system. Further, longitudinal trends present in recent history, in light of state and institutional initiatives aimed at addressing educational equity, were reviewed. Given the State’s focus on its Closing the Gaps initiatives, as well as the national call for increasing the number of graduate recipients, results from this investigation are both informative and timely. This information should be useful to university administrators, graduate recruiters and advisors, education oversight bodies, and state legislators making decisions ranging from educational recruitment strategies to program design to support service development.
Research Questions
The following descriptive research questions were repeated for each year of data (i.e., 2000 through 2011) analyzed herein: (a) What are the numbers and percentages of master’s degrees awarded at Texas public institutions as a function of ethnicity (i.e., White, Hispanic, Black)?; (b) What is the difference in the number and percentages of master’s degrees awarded at Texas public institutions between the 2000 and 2011 academic years as a function of ethnicity(i.e., White, Hispanic, Black)?; and (c) What is the trend in the ethnic diversity of master’s degrees awarded at Texas public institutions between the 2000 and 2011 academic years?
Selection of Participants
The unit of analysis for this study was Texas, 4-year, public institutions of higher education. Data for degrees awarded from 2000 through 2011 were downloaded from the Texas Higher Education Accountability System. The graduate degree data that were obtain reflects all masters degrees awarded in all disciplines at Texas public institutions of higher education. The archival data encompassed degree data for 38 institutions and were delineated by ethnicity (i.e., White, Hispanic, and Black) and academic year. All institutions for which data were available were utilized within the study. Using all data for all Texas public institutions of higher education renders the largest possible sample size, thus increasing the study’s overall reliability (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2007). Moreover, analyzing data from all Texas public institutions of higher education precludes question of population representation and findings generalizability (Cohen et al., 2007). Excluded from the study were private and for-profit institutions, as well as community colleges, technical institutes, and health-related institutions. Further, only degrees awarded to White, Hispanic, and Black students were examined. The number of degrees awarded to Asian students was not analyzed in this investigation, due to the extremely small number of Asian students enrolled in Texas public institutions of higher education.
Instrumentation
The current study was conducted through the use of archival data obtained from the Texas Higher Education Accountability System. The Texas Higher Education Accountability System is an online, interactive data tool intended to organize and provide information relating to Texas higher education participation, success, excellence, and research, the main focal areas of the State’s Closing the Gaps educational plan (Texas Higher Education Accountability System, n.d.). Data are organized by institution type (e.g., universities, health-related institution, state technical colleges, and community colleges) and is available for the years 2000 through 2011 (Texas Higher Education Accountability System, n.d.). For the purposes of this study, university data were downloaded from the system for each of the available 12 years.
The Texas Higher Education Accountability System was first developed in 2004, as a direct initiative stemming from Texas Governor Rick Perry’s Executive Order RP 31 (Texas Higher Education Accountability System, 2011b). Perry’s (2004) Executive Order mandated that educational institutions and systems collaboratively provide “information necessary to determine the effectiveness and quality of the education students receive at individual institutions” (para. 8). Working with the component institutions and the State Legislature, the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board developed a set of measures to be collected and published through the data system (Texas Higher Education Accountability System, 2011b). Data are available for the State’s 38 public universities, 78 community college campuses, nine health-related institutions, four state technical colleges, and three two-year Lamar State Colleges (Texas Higher Education Accountability System, n.d.; Texas Higher Education Accountability System, 2011b).
Procedures
Upon approval by the University Institutional Review Board, data collection and analysis commenced. For the purposes of the current study, degree award data were collected using the interactive access feature of the Texas Higher Education Accountability System. Specifically, the following variables from the Success component of the database were downloaded from the site into an Excel format: (a) Degrees Awarded – Master’s by ethnic groups of White, Hispanic, and Black, students for each of the years 2000 through 2011. Following the download of data into an Excel file, the data were imported into the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for analysis.
Results
From the 2000 through the 2011 academic year, 282,821 master’s degrees were awarded by Texas public institutions of higher education. In total, as well as within each academic year, White students received the highest number of master’s degrees, followed respectively by Hispanic and Black students. Throughout the 12-year time period, master’s degree awards were distributed to White students (n = 147,475), to Hispanic students (n = 38,725), and to Black students (n = 23,730). A detailed listing of the number of master’s degrees awarded to each ethnic group for each of the 12 academic years is provided in Table 1.
Table 1
Master’s Degrees Awarded to White, Black, and Hispanic Students in Texas from the 2000 Through the 2011 Academic Years
| Academic Year | White | Hispanic | Black | Total |
| 2000 | 10,556 | 2,058 | 1,182 | 17,813 |
| 2001 | 10,489 | 2,109 | 1,208 | 18,110 |
| 2002 | 10,415 | 2,324 | 1,282 | 18,492 |
| 2003 | 10,790 | 2,482 | 1,440 | 20,199 |
| 2004 | 11,701 | 2,857 | 1,815 | 22,760 |
| 2005 | 12,605 | 3,249 | 1,960 | 24,246 |
| 2006 | 12,603 | 3,264 | 2,156 | 24,053 |
| 2007 | 12,514 | 3,514 | 2,185 | 24,055 |
| 2008 | 12,705 | 3,503 | 2,485 | 25,233 |
| 2009 | 13, 840 | 4,110 | 2,540 | 27,111 |
| 2010 | 14,455 | 4,349 | 2,635 | 29,176 |
| 2011 | 14,802 | 4,906 | 2,842 | 31,573 |
From the 2000 through the 2011 academic year, 74.23% of the 282,821 total master’s degrees awarded by Texas public institutions of higher education were awarded to White, Hispanic, and Black students. Readers should note that percentages do not sum to 100% as groups reported with ethnicities of Asian, Multi-racial, International, and Other were not included. In total, as well as within each academic year, White students received the highest percentage of master’s degrees, followed respectively by Hispanic and Black students. Throughout the 12-year time period, master’s degrees awarded to White students ranged from 46.88% in 2011 to 59.26% in 2000. Master’s degrees awarded to Hispanic students ranged from 11.55% in 2000 to 15.54% in 2011. For Black students, master’s degree awards ranged from 6.64% in 2000 to 9.85% in 2008. A detailed listing of the percent of master’s degrees awarded to each ethnic group for each of the 12 academic years is provided in Table 2.
Table 2
Percent of Master’s Degrees Awarded to White, Black, and Hispanic Students in Texas from the 2000 Through the 2011 Academic Years
| Academic Year | White | Hispanic | Black |
| 2000 | 59.26% | 11.55% | 6.64% |
| 2001 | 57.92% | 11.64% | 6.67% |
| 2002 | 56.32% | 12.57% | 6.93% |
| 2003 | 53.42% | 12.29% | 7.13% |
| 2004 | 51.41% | 12.55% | 7.98% |
| 2005 | 51.99% | 13.40% | 8.08% |
| 2006 | 52.40% | 13.57% | 8.96% |
| 2007 | 52.02% | 14.61% | 9.08% |
| 2008 | 50.35% | 13.88% | 9.85% |
| 2009 | 51.05% | 15.16% | 9.37% |
| 2010 | 49.54% | 14.9% | 9.03% |
| 2011 | 46.88% | 15.54% | 9.00% |
Inferential statistics were utilized to determine the difference in the number of master’s degrees awarded at Texas public institutions between the 2000 and the 2011 academic years as a function of ethnicity. Prior to data analysis, descriptive statistics and data normality were examined. Descriptive statistics for the master’s degrees awarded in the 2000 and the 2011 academic years are provided in Table 3.
Table 3
Descriptive Statistics by Ethnicity for Master’s Degrees Awarded at Texas Public Institutions of Higher Education for the 2000 and the 2011 Academic Years
| Ethnic Membership and Academic Year | n of universities | M | SD |
| White Students | |||
| 2000 | 33 | 319.88 | 332.62 |
| 2011 | 33 | 442.61 | 433.47 |
| Hispanic Students | |||
| 2000 | 33 | 62.36 | 68.64 |
| 2011 | 33 | 144.42 | 150.98 |
| Black Students | |||
| 2000 | 33 | 35.82 | 58.03 |
| 2011 | 33 | 83.97 | 102.66 |
Normality of the data was determined through the calculation of standardized skewness and kurtosis coefficients. It should be noted that four additional institutions reported master’s degree award data in the 2011 academic year, as compared to the 2000 academic year. As such, standardized skewness and kurtosis coefficients were calculated for 33 institutions in 2000 and 37 institutions in 2011. A majority of the coefficients for all ethnic groups fell outside the range of +/- 3. As such, the data were determined to be non-normally distributed (Onwuengbuzie & Daniel, 2002).
Based upon the non-normal distribution of the data, a non-parametric test, the Wilcoxon signed-rank test (Field, 2009), was determined to be the most appropriate statistical procedure. The conventional level of statistical significance (.05) was utilized. First, the difference in the number of master’s degrees awarded to White students at Texas public institutions between the 2000 and 2011 academic years was examined. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test yielded a statistically significant result, z = -3.06, p = .002. This difference yielded a small effect size with a Cohen’s d of 0.32 (Cohen, 1988). Descriptive statistics revealed that, on average, 122.73 more master’s degrees were awarded to White students in Texas public institutions in the 2011 academic year than in the 2000 academic year with average institutional master’s degree awards of 319.88 and 442.61, respectively.
Second, the difference in the number of master’s degrees awarded to Hispanic students at Texas public institutions between the 2000 and 2011 academic years was examined. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test indicated a statistically significant result, z = -4.55, p < .001. This difference yielded a medium effect size with a Cohen’s d of 0.56 (Cohen, 1988). On average, 82.06 more master’s degrees were awarded to Hispanic students in Texas public institutions in the 2011 academic year than in the 2000 academic year. An analysis of descriptive statistics indicated average master’s degrees awarded by institutions to Hispanic students were 144.42 and 62.36, respectively.
Third, the difference in the number of master’s degrees awarded to Black students at Texas public institutions between the 2000 and 2011 academic years was examined. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test revealed a statistically significant result, z = -4.28, p < .001. This difference yielded a medium effect size with a Cohen’s d of 0.58 (Cohen, 1988). Descriptive statistics revealed that, on average, 48.15 more master’s degrees were awarded to Black students in Texas public institutions in the 2011 academic year than in the 2000 academic year with averages of 83.97 and 35.82 per institution, respectively.
Inferential statistics were utilized to determine the difference in the percentage of master’s degrees awarded at Texas public institutions between the 2000 and the 2011 academic years as a function of ethnicity. Prior to data analysis, descriptive statistics and data normality were examined. Descriptive statistics for the percentage of master’s degrees awarded in the 2000 and the 2011 academic years are provided in Table 4.
Table 4
Descriptive Statistics by Ethnicity for the Percentage of Master’s Degrees Awarded at Texas Public Institutions of Higher Education for the 2000 and the 2011 Academic Years
| Ethnic Membership and Academic Year | n of universities | M | SD |
| White Students | |||
| 2000 | 33 | 58.47% | 0.24 |
| 2011 | 33 | 45.46% | 0.23 |
| Hispanic Students | |||
| 2000 | 33 | 16.87% | 0.21 |
| 2011 | 33 | 20.95% | 0.22 |
| Black Students | |||
| 2000 | 33 | 8.75% | 0.17 |
| 2011 | 33 | 11.07% | 0.19 |
Normality of the data was determined through the calculation of standardized skewness and kurtosis coefficients. Four additional institutions reported master’s degree award data in the 2011 academic year, as compared to the 2000 academic year. Accordingly, standardized skewness and kurtosis coefficients were calculated for 33 institutions in 2000 and 37 institutions in 2011. All coefficients relating to the percentage of master’s degrees awarded to White students fell within the range of +/- 3, thus indicating normality of data. Conversely, 50% or more of the coefficients relating to the percentage of master’s degrees awarded to Hispanic and Black students fell outside the range of +/- 3 for data points. As such, these data were determined to be non-normally distributed (Onwuengbuzie & Daniel, 2002).
A parametric dependent samples t-test was considered the most appropriate statistical procedure for the normally distributed data, whereas a Wilcoxon signed-rank test was determined to be the most appropriate statistical procedure for the non-normally distributed data (Field, 2009). The conventional level of statistical significance (.05) was utilized. First, the difference in the percentage of master’s degrees awarded to White students at Texas public institutions between the 2000 and 2011 academic years was examined. The parametric dependent samples t-test yielded a statistically significant result, t(32) = 9.29, p < .001. This difference yielded a medium effect size with a Cohen’s d of 0.55 (Cohen, 1988). Descriptive statistics revealed that, on average, 13.01% fewer master’s degrees were awarded to White students in Texas public institutions in the 2011 academic year than in the 2000 academic year with average institutional percentage of master’s degree awards to White students of 45.46% and 58.47%, respectively.
Second, the difference in the percentage of master’s degrees awarded to Hispanic students at Texas public institutions between the 2000 and 2011 academic years was examined. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test indicated a statistically significant result, z = -3.39, p = .001. This difference yielded a trivial effect size with a Cohen’s d of 0.19 (Cohen, 1988). On average, 4.08% more master’s degrees were awarded to Hispanic students in Texas public institutions in the 2011 academic year than in the 2000 academic year. An analysis of descriptive statistics indicated the average percentage of master’s degrees awarded by institutions to Hispanic students were 20.95% and 16.87%, respectively.
Third, the difference in the percentage of master’s degrees awarded to Black students at Texas public institutions between the 2000 and 2011 academic years was examined. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test revealed a statistically significant result, z = -3.06, p = .002. This difference yielded a trivial effect size with a Cohen’s d of 0.13 (Cohen, 1988). An analysis of descriptive statistics revealed that, on average, 2.32% more master’s degrees were awarded to Black students in Texas public institutions in the 2011 academic year than in the 2000 academic year with averages of 11.07% and 8.75% per institution, respectively.
Visual interpretations of line graphs were utilized to illuminate the trend in the ethnic diversity of master’s degrees awarded at Texas public institutions between the 2000 and 2011 academic years. Line graphs were analyzed for the existence of upward, downward, flat, or varied change across years. Utilizing Microsoft Excel, line graphs were developed for both the number of master’s degrees and the percentages of master’s degrees awarded at Texas public institutions between the 2000 and 2011 academic years by ethnic status.
As depicted in Figure 1, an overall upward trend was present for White, Hispanic, and Black students between the 2000 and 2011 academic years. Examining the trend on a year-by-year basis, however, illuminated incremental, varied changes. Specifically, the number of master’s degrees awarded to White students decreased by 141 between the 2000 and 2002 academic years. Following, an increase of 2,190 master’s degrees was depicted for this group between the 2002 and 2005 academic years. Academic years 2005 through 2007 were again characterized by small decreases in master’s degree awards to White students with a decrease of 91. Finally, from the 2008 to the 2011 academic years, master’s degree awards to White students steadily improved, with a gain of 2,288. Overall, increases were more substantial for White students than for Hispanic or Black students, as depicted by the relative slopes in the trend lines. However, the more substantial increases for White students were also offset by more frequent decreases for the ethnic group.
In contrast to the variation in the number of master’s degree awards to White students, the number of master’s degree awards to Hispanic students has sustained, to a greater extent, an upward trend. Increases in the number of master’s degrees awarded to Hispanic students were present from the 2000 academic year through the 2007 academic year for a total increase of 1,456. Representing the only annual decrease in the number of master’s degrees awarded to this group was an 11 degree decrease from the 2007 and the 2008 academic years. Following, steady increases were depicted from academic years 2008 through 2011, with an overall increase of 1,403 degrees.
Finally, the trend in master’s degrees awarded to Black students depicted a steady increase from the 2000 through the 2011 academic years, with no annual decreases present. Across the 12 academic years of data, the number of master’s degrees awarded to Black students increased by 1,160. The most notable increases for this group occurred between academic years 2003 and 2004, with an increase of 375 master’s degrees; between the 2007 and 2008 academic years, with an increase of 300 master’s degrees; and between 2010 and 2011, with an increase of 207 master’s degrees.
Figure 1. Trend in the number of master’s degrees by ethnic status awarded at Texas public institutions between the 2000 and 2011 academic years.
As depicted in Figure 2, an overall downward trend was present for the percentage of master’s degrees awarded to White students between the 2000 and 2011 academic years. Conversely, an overall upward trend, through small, was present for the percentage of master’s degrees awarded to both Hispanic and Black students between the 2000 and 2011 academic years. Examining the trends on a year-by-year basis, however, illuminated incremental, varied changes. Specifically, the percentage of master’s degrees awarded to White students decreased by 7.85% between the 2000 and 2004 academic years. Following, slight increases totaling less than 1% were depicted for this group between the 2004 and 2006 academic years. Between the 2006 and 2011 academic years, a mix of annual, small increases and decreases resulted in an overall negative trend, with a total decrease of 5.52%.
In contrast to the overall decrease in the percentage of master’s degree awards to White students, the percentage of master’s degree awards to Hispanic students sustained a slight upward trend from the 2000 through the 2011 academic years. Both the annual percentage increases and the annual percentage decreases were small for this group, with annual changes not exceeding 1.28% in either direction. With the exception of the 2003, 2008, and 2010 academic years, the trend line for the percentage of master’s degrees awarded to Hispanic students depicted annual increases ranging from 0.09% to 1.28%, resulting in an overall percentage increase of 3.99%.
Finally, the trend line in the percentage of master’s degrees awarded to Black students illustrated an increase between the 2000 and 2011 academic years, with a declining trend in recent years. Steady increases were present from the 2000 through the 2008 academic years, with a total increase of 3.21% over this time period. From the 2009 through the 2011 academic years, slight decreases of only 0.85% were present.
Figure 2. Trend in the percentage of master’s degrees by ethnic status awarded at Texas public institutions between the 2000 and 2011 academic years.
Summary of Results
A total of 282,821 master’s degrees were awarded by Texas public institutions of higher education between the 2000 and 2011 academic years. White students were awarded the majority of master’s degrees during this time period, with 147,475 degrees. Hispanic and Black students received 38,725 and 23,730 master’s degrees, respectively. Students from other ethnic groupings combined (i.e., Asian, Multi-racial, International, and Other) received 72,891 degrees.
In the 2000 academic year, White students were awarded the majority of master’s degrees, with 10,556 degrees. Hispanic and Black students received 2,058 and 1,182 master’s degree, respectively. Students from other ethnic groupings combined (i.e., Asian, Multi-racial, International, and Other) received 4,017 degrees. Provided in Figure 3 are the numbers and percentages of master’s degrees awarded by Texas public institutions of higher education for the 2000 academic year.
Figure 3. Distribution of master’s degrees by ethnic status awarded at Texas public institutions in the 2000 academic year.
In the 2011 academic year, White students were awarded the majority of master’s degrees, with 14,802 degrees. Hispanic and Black students received 4,906 and 2,842 master’s degree, respectively. Students from other ethnic groupings combined (i.e., Asian, Multi-racial, International, and Other) received 9,023 degrees. Provided in Figure 4 are the numbers and percentages of master’s degrees awarded by Texas public institutions of higher education for the 2011 academic year.
Figure 4. Distribution of master’s degrees by ethnic status awarded at Texas public institutions in the 2011 academic year.
With regard to differences in the numbers of master’s degrees awarded by Texas public institutions of higher education between the 2000 and the 2011 academic years was addressed, statistical significance was documented for the differences in the numbers of master’s degrees for White, Hispanic, and Black students. Small effect sizes were yielded for master’s degrees awarded to White students. Medium effect sizes were yielded for master’s degrees awarded to Hispanic and Black students. Additional details regarding statistical significance and effect sizes are provided in Table 5.
Table 5
Summary of Results and Effect Sizes for the Differences in the Numbers of Master’s Degrees Awarded by Texas Public Institutions of Higher Education Between the 2000 and the 2011 Academic Years
| Research Question and Ethnic Membership | Statistically Significant | Cohen’s d | Effect Size |
| Number of Master’s Degrees | |||
| White | Yes | 0.32 | Small |
| Hispanic | Yes | 0.56 | Medium |
| Black | Yes | 0.58 | Medium |
With regard to differences in the percentages of master’s degrees awarded by Texas public institutions of higher education between the 2000 and the 2011 academic years was addressed, statistically significant differences were present in the percentages of master’s degrees for White, Hispanic and Black students. A medium effect size was yielded for master’s degrees awarded to White students. Trivial effect sizes were yielded for master’s degrees awarded to Hispanic and Black students. Additional details regarding statistical significance and effect sizes are provided in Table 6.
Table 6
Summary of Results and Effect Sizes for the Differences in the Percentages of Master’s, Doctoral, and Professional Degrees Awarded by Texas Public Institutions of Higher Education Between the 2000 and the 2011 Academic Years
| Research Question and Ethnic Membership | Statistically Significant | Cohen’s d | Effect Size |
| Number of Master’s Degrees | |||
| White | Yes | 0.55 | Medium |
| Hispanic | Yes | 0.19 | Trivial |
| Black | Yes | 0.13 | Trivial |
Line graphs were utilized to illuminate the trend in the ethnic diversity of master’s degrees awarded at Texas public institutions between the 2000 and 2011 academic years was addressed, differences were observed between White, Hispanic, and Black degree attainment patterns. For the number of master’s degree awards, overall upward trends were documented for White, Hispanic, and Black students across the 12 academic years of data. Overall, increases were more substantial for White students than for Hispanic or Black students, as depicted by the relative slopes in the trend lines. However, the more substantial increases for White students were also offset by more frequent decreases for the ethnic group. The trend for the number of master’s degrees awarded to Black students displayed the only consistent annual increase from the 2000 through the 2011 academic year, with no annual decreases. However, the percentage distribution by ethnic group of master’s degree awards shifted over the 12-year academic period. Although the percentage of master’s degrees awarded to both Hispanic and Black students increased slightly, the percentage of master’s degrees awarded to White students decreased. A more detailed representation of the trends in ethnic diversity of master’s degrees awarded at Texas public institutions between the 2000 and 2011 academic years is provided in Figures 2 and 3.
Discussion
A total of 282,821 master’s degrees were awarded by Texas public institutions of higher education between the 2000 and 2011 academic years. White students were awarded the majority of master’s degrees during each of the academic years, with a total of 147,475 degrees (52.14%) across the 12-year time period. During this same 12-year time period, Hispanic and Black students received a total of 38,725 (13.69%) and 23,730 (8.39%) master’s degrees, respectively, with Hispanic students receiving a greater number of master’s degree awards than Black students in each of the 12 academic years. Students from other ethnic groupings combined (i.e., Asian, Multi-racial, International, and Other) received 72,891 degrees (25.77%). Readers are referred to Tables 9 and 12 for a detailed listing of the number and percentages of master’s degrees awarded to each ethnic group for each of the 12 academic years.
Regarding differences in the numbers of master’s degrees awarded by Texas public institutions of higher education between the 2000 and the 2011 academic years was addressed, statistically significant differences were present in in the numbers of master’s degrees for White, Hispanic, and Black students. With respect to master’s degrees, a greater number of master’s degrees were awarded to White, Black, and Hispanic students in the 2011 academic year than the 2000 academic year.
Concerning differences in the percentages of master’s degrees awarded by Texas public institutions of higher education between the 2000 and the 2011 academic years was addressed, statistically significant differences were established. With respect to master’s degrees, a percentage decrease was documented for White students from the 2000 academic year to the 2011 academic year. Conversely, a larger percentage of master’s degrees were awarded to both Black and Hispanic students in the 2011 academic year as compared to the 2000 academic year.
Line graphs were utilized to illuminate the trend in the ethnic diversity of master’s degrees awarded at Texas public institutions between the 2000 and 2011 academic years was addressed, differences were observed between White, Hispanic, and Black degree attainment patterns. For the number of master’s degree awards, overall upward trends were documented for White, Hispanic, and Black students across the 12 academic years of data. Overall, increases were more substantial for White students than for Hispanic or Black students. However, the more substantial increases for White students were also offset by more frequent decreases for the ethnic group. The trend for the number of master’s degrees awarded to Black students displayed the only consistent annual increase from the 2000 through the 2011 academic year, with no annual decreases. However, the percentage distribution by ethnic group of master’s degree awards shifted over the 12-year academic period. Although the percentage of master’s degrees awarded to both Hispanic and Black students increased slightly, the percentage of master’s degrees awarded to White students decreased. A more detailed representation of the trends in ethnic diversity of master’s degrees awarded at Texas public institutions between the 2000 and 2011 academic years is provided in Figures 2 and 3.
Relationship to Literature
The Council of Graduate Schools has termed graduate education a “strategic national asset” to the United States, substantially impacting the nation’s ability to remain competitive in the global economy (Wendler et al., 2010, preface). It is imperative, therefore, that investments be made in educating a larger proportion of the population at the graduate level in an effort for the United States to remain a global, intellectual leader (Wendler et al., 2010). However, with the population of the nation and the State of Texas becoming increasingly diversified, it is necessary to consider educating a larger proportion of the population within each ethnic group as well. Gains in educational attainment of the citizens of Texas should be made overall, as well as within each ethnic group, with improvements in the proportional educational attainment of each group.
Despite documented needs in educational equality at the graduate level, few researchers have examined degree awards by ethnic grouping on a national or state level. Researchers of existing studies have documented application and enrollment statistics by ethnic grouping, enrollment statistics by discipline and ethnic grouping, college choice factors by ethnic group, time-to-degree factors by ethnic group, program-specific enrollment and student characteristics, student undergraduate institution characteristics, and student transition behaviors into graduate school, with no documentation for degree completion by ethnic group (Allum, Bell, & Sowell, 2012; Clark, Mercer, Zeigler-Hill, & Dufrene, 2012; Joseph, 2012; Kim & Otts, 2010; Maton et al., 2011; Sibulkin & Butler, 2011; Strayhorn, Williams, Tillman-Kelly, & Suddeth, 2012; Willison & Gibson, 2011).
Two national research studies have, however, encompassed a review of graduate degree award data. Boren (2008) and (2011) examined, through an analysis of data from the National Center for Education Statistic’s Integrated Postsecondary Education Data Set, the number of graduate degrees awarded by institution, resulting in a ranking of U.S. institutions for minority degree awards. Borden (2008) revealed that Black and Hispanic students were underrepresented in graduate level degree awards in relation to their United States population representations and were further underrepresented in higher-level categorized Carnegie institutions. In a follow-up study, Borden (2011) reported similar findings. Hispanic students attained degrees from institutions in each Carnegie Classification in similar patterns as did White students, although at lower representation levels. Hispanic students were slightly less likely than their White counterparts to receive graduate degrees from research/doctoral universities, formerly categorized as comprehensive research institutions, and were slightly more likely to receive degrees from specialized institutions, formerly categorized as focused institutions. Black students, however, continued to present disparate degree attainment patterns at the graduate level, receiving a disproportionate number of graduate degrees from the lower-tiered doctoral research institutions (Borden, 2011).
Although neither Borden (2008) nor Borden (2011) examined degree equity within the State of Texas, similarities in findings were documented between the present study of Texas graduate degree equity and their national degree equity studies. Borden (2008) presented similar percentages to the current study for master’s degrees awarded to Black students. Borden (2008) documented percentages of master’s degrees award nationwide of 10.2%, as compared to the present study findings of 9%, respectively. Similarities in percentage representations for White and Hispanic graduate degree awards were less substantial. Borden (2008) established percentages of master’s degrees awarded nationwide to White students of 65.1%, as compared to the present study findings of 46.88%. Borden (2008) documented percentages of master’s degrees awarded nationwide to Hispanic students of 5.7%, as compared to the present study findings of 15.54%.
Similar to Borden’s (2008) findings of underrepresentation of Black and Hispanic student graduate degree awards as compared to their proportional U.S. population demographics, Black and Hispanic students were determined as being underrepresented in graduate degree attainment within the State of Texas as compared to their Texas population demographics within the present study. In the 2011 academic year, White students were overrepresented in both the percentage of master’s degrees awarded as compared to their Texas population demographics. Representing approximately 44.82% of the Texas population, White students accounted for 46.88% of master’s degrees awarded by public institutions within the State (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011c).
In contrast to the graduate degree award overrepresentations within the State of Texas for White students, Black and Hispanic students were underrepresented in all graduate degree categories. In the 2011 academic year, Black students were underrepresented in the percentages of master’s awarded as compared to their Texas and United States population demographics. Representing approximately 11.51% of the Texas population and 12.03% of the United States population, Black students accounted for 9% of master’s degrees awarded by Texas public institutions (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011a, 2011c). Furthermore, in the 2011 academic year, Hispanic students were underrepresented in the percentages of master’s degrees awarded as compared to their Texas and United States population demographics. Representing approximately 38.14% of the Texas population and 14.03% of the United States population, Black students accounted for 15.54% of master’s degrees awarded by Texas public institutions (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011a, 2011c).
The current study findings were also supported by Franklin and Slate’s (2012) study of first-generation student enrollment, graduation rates, and highest degree attainment levels. In addition to difference by first-generation status, Franklin and Slate (2012) documented differences by ethnic group within first-generation status. They established differences by ethnicity for first-generation students seeking a second graduate degree (i.e., a second master’s degree, a doctoral degree, or a professional degree). Within the first-generation student group, the lowest rate of second graduate degree enrollment was document for Black students at 11.4%, approximately half the rate of both Hispanic students (20.3%) and White students (18.7%).
Relationship to Theoretical Framework
Cultural capital theory is a useful lens to examine the inequities within higher education. Specifically, cultural capital theory can be used to inform the inequities within the graduate education system by providing a frame in which student background, familial resources, and social and economic status are considered. Described by Coleman (1988) as the phenomenon of a socialized individual’s actions being shaped, constrained, or redirected by social norms, cultural capital theory encompasses such factors as student background, familial resources, and social standing. Bourdieu (2003) further postulated that cultural capital was endowed to individuals from previous generations, resulting in a cultural reproduction phenomenon. Individuals possess a certain amount of social and cultural capital, passed down to them from previous generations. Inequalities of class, race, and other social strata, as a result, are re-enforced in a cyclical manner (Bourdieu, 1977; Lareau & Horvat, 1999).
In addition to familial passage and inheritance of cultural capital, Bourdieu (1974) asserted that educational systems, inherently lacking social neutrality, often serve as social transmitters of cultural capital (as cited in Lamont & Lareau, 1988). Transmission of cultural capital through the educational system indirectly places students from non-dominant cultures at distinct disadvantages compared to those children from the dominant social class (Bourdieu, 1974). Relating to higher education, the non-dominant culture can be described as the minority population, inclusive of both Black and Hispanic ethnic groups. The underrepresentation of these groups in master’s, doctoral, and professional degrees within Texas public higher education institutions separates Black and Hispanic students from the dominant culture, resulting in a disadvantageous position for those groups. As noted by a reviewer, even with equivalent degrees for Black, Hispanic, and White individuals, different economic and cultural rewards are present for achievement. That is, disparities in pay rate exist among White, Hispanic, and Black degree holders.
Bourdieu contended that cultural capital contributed to the ability of dominant group to retain power, resources, and cultural distance from non-dominant groups (Lamont & Lareau, 1988). A master’s degree can be viewed as yet another resource acquired as a result of an individual’s cultural capital. That additional resource contributes to the cyclical effect of cultural capital, providing opportunity and access to additional benefits and resources such as increased employment and earnings potential, enhanced job satisfaction, greater opportunity for autonomy and responsibility, enhanced flexibility in career choice, and overall greater life satisfaction (Garces, 2012; Kent, 2012; Kidwell, Flagg, & Stites-Doe, 2010; Sowell, Bell, Francis, & Goodwin, 2010; U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2012a; U.S. Census Bureau, 2011a; Wendler et al., 2010).
However, the argument that the dominant class within graduate education overtly contributes to the success of individual students is dependent upon the notion that students apply to and enroll in graduate programs. Extending this argument, Bourdieu (1974) contended that exclusion from social groups, retention of dominant group power, and maintenance of group distance are not overt or conscious occurrences. Instead, exclusionary behaviors, attitudes, preferences, and understandings are inherited through familial socialization and become dispositions within the individual. These dispositions, referred to as an individual’s habitus, come together to drive the intrinsic patterns and norms within society and contribute to the individual’s exclusion from the dominant culture (Lamont & Lareau, 1988).
Applied to underrepresented groups in graduate education, exclusionary behaviors can be the driving force behind students choosing or not choosing to enroll in graduate education programs. Self-elimination and relegation are possible exclusionary behaviors, neither of which considered overt or conscious, resulting in a particular individual opting not to seek continued education. Self-elimination occurs when an individual unconsciously adjustments aspirations of achievement as a result of fear of failure or discomfort in an unfamiliar landscape (Bourdieu, 1974). Further, self-elimination results from an individual estimating the value of educational attainment and the perceived chance of success being outweighed by the anticipated cost of attainment (Bourdieu, 1977). Students from Black and Hispanic ethnic groups, therefore, may be self-eliminating from graduate education enrollment. These student groups may (a) have a fear of failure, (b) perceive discomfort as part of the non-dominant class, (c) have a low value of graduate education attainment, or (d) have a perceived cost of attainment that outweighs the value of graduate education attainment.
A second exclusionary behavior, relegation, encompasses the negative consequences for actions taken by individuals holding low cultural capital (Lamont & Lareau, 1988). Student groups with a lack of understanding of the benefit of graduate education or those students who fail to select appropriate undergraduate and graduate degree program paths that align with career aspirations may be relegated out of the graduate student pool. For example, students who fail to select undergraduate degrees that will provide the necessary skills, knowledge, or credentials to prepare them subsequently for graduate instruction have self-relegated prior to receiving their undergraduate degrees and becoming part of the graduate education applicant pool.
Over time, the lack of representation in graduate degree attainment within particular social classes (i.e., Black and Hispanic ethnic groups), and whether by overt, conscious, or unconscious exclusionary behaviors, leads to a continuous permeation of class consensus on the value and desire for educational attainment. These social beliefs and value systems are then subsequently passed from generation to generation, further contributing to the educational inequalities by ethnic group. Cultural reproduction, therefore, must be considered and addressed in efforts to break the generational cycle of educational inequities.
Implications for Policy and Practice
Researchers have asserted “immediate action must be taken to increase the number of individuals who not only enroll in higher education but also earn degrees” (Engle & Tinto, 2008, p. 2). Within the State of Texas, the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board (2012b) has emphasized the need for action contending that “Texas stands at a crossroads” (p. 5). With an increasingly diversified population, the State of Texas must address the current gaps in collegiate enrollment and graduation between racial and ethnic groups. To do otherwise would result in a less educated workforce, a declining state economy, and a depressed quality of life for Texas citizens (Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board, 2012c).
Although the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board has implemented its Closing the Gaps by 2015 plan and acknowledged that “Texas must take bold steps for the future success of its people,” additional action is necessary to address the ethnic inequalities at the graduate level within Texas higher education (Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board, 2012c, p. 1). Within the State’s Closing the Gaps by 2015 initiative, specific goals and targets were developed to close the educational gaps in Texas education (Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board, 2012c). However, within the success component of the Closing the Gaps by 2015 plan, the component that encompasses degree completion, only one of the 12 targets is applicable to graduate education. For example, the Closing the Gaps by 2015 plan includes success targets for increasing the number of students completing associate degrees, bachelor’s degrees, and certificates. Each of these targets is repeated for specific ethnic groups with identified benchmarks for increases to be obtained for Black and Hispanic students.
As the Closing the Gaps by 2015 plan is targeted primarily toward undergraduate populations, indicated by a majority of enrollment and degree attainment benchmarks set for undergraduate students, additional, specific, and targeted programs are needed for graduate education (Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board, 2012c). The findings of this study reveal continued disparities between White and Black and Hispanic student populations in the attainment of master’s degrees. Black and Hispanic student populations have been since the 2000 academic year, and continue to be, underrepresented as compared to their Texas population demographics in graduate-level degree awards by Texas public institutions. Though specific targets for increased associate degree, bachelor’s degree, and certificate program attainment have been developed for both Black and Hispanic student groups, the same attention has not been given to these groups at the graduate level.
However, setting success targets at the undergraduate level can be argued as a necessary first step in increasing the pool of eligible graduate school applicants. Regrettably, this argument does not consider the age at which students make the decision of whether or not to enroll in graduate education. The decision of whether or not to enroll in higher education, as well as the anticipated level of higher education attainment (e.g., bachelor’s degree, master’s degree, doctoral degree) has been documented as being made by students between the eighth and 10th grades (Choy, 2009). Further, researchers have established that students aspiring to higher education in the eighth grade were more likely than their peers with lower aspirations to enroll (Bui, 2005).
Examining the higher education enrollments from a cyclical perspective, today’s graduate-level educated students will contribute to higher education attainment of tomorrow’s citizens. According to Choy (2009), students’ educational aspirations were impacted by their parents’ level of educational attainment. The educational aspirations of students increased sharply as their parents’ education levels rose. As a result, targeting efforts to increase the master’s degree attainment levels of Black and Hispanic students should lead to an accelerated and increased number of advanced degree enrollments and degrees for future generations.
In light of current disparities in the graduate degree attainment of Black and Hispanic students, immediate action must be taken today to ensure the future prosperity of the State, as well as, the substantial proportion of individuals within these groups. The Closing the Gaps by 2015 plan should be expanded to include ethnic group specific targets at the graduate level. In addition, marketing and information campaigns should target students by the eighth grade, at the latest, informing them and their parents of the benefits of graduate education. Opening the minds of young adults to the educational opportunities available to them will empower them to set high, educational achievement goals for their futures. To accomplish this task, graduate programs should work closely with younger student populations, as is currently practiced between undergraduate programs and junior and senior high schools. Early communication with these young students and their parents will allow for financial planning and informed selection of undergraduate programs and institutions. The Council for Graduate Schools mirrors this recommendation with their statement:
As a first step it is reasonable that young students (high school and below) be encouraged to think of college and graduate school as realistic, obtainable goals, because without that vision students will not aspire to continue in higher education. In particular, young students from underrepresented racial and ethnic groups need to understand the value of pursuing college and graduate degrees. (Wendler et al., 2010, p. 11)
Marketing and informational campaigns targeted toward younger student populations, however, should not replace or lessen the communication to those student populations already enrolled in undergraduate education programs. Communication to these groups should be supplemented and expanded. Undergraduate students often receive far less recruitment documentation for graduate programs than they received for their undergraduate programs (Wendler et al., 2010). Communicating with and informing an already attentive audience should be an area of focus for all graduate program recruiters.
In addition to targeted and specific degree attainment goals and earlier and increased communication on the opportunities and benefits of graduate education for Black and Hispanic student groups, additional financial resources are necessary for economically disadvantaged groups. Wendler et al. (2012) asserted that adequate financial support was critical for both enrollment motivation and subsequent degree completion within graduate education programs. Together, increased attention and accountability for equity in graduate enrollments and completions, increased and expansive communication campaigns, increased financial commitments to graduate education are necessary to ensure that the Texan citizenry of future generations are equipped with the knowledge, skills, and resources to contribute to a prosperous and economically viable society.
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